Startseite » Instrumente » Pleyel „Grand Modèle de Concert“ – Wanda Landowska 1928

Pleyel „Grand Modèle de Concert” – Wanda Landowska 1928

Description

Wanda Landowska (1879 – 1959) was one of the most influential musicians of the 20^th century and played an important role in the revival of the harpsichord. Her name is inextricably linked with the prestigious instrument manufacturer Pleyel and the harpsichord renaissance of the early 20^th century. After the harpsichord had long been displaced by the modern piano, Landowska recognised its tonal and interpretative potential. With scholarly precision, she dedicated herself to its research, reconstruction, and further development. Her profound musicological interest and innovative performance style contributed to establishing the harpsichord as an independent concert instrument of great artistic significance. Through her pioneering work, she laid the foundation for today’s historical performance practice and profoundly shaped the understanding and reception of Baroque music. Her influence extends far beyond her own time and remains palpable to this day.

The History of Pleyel Harpsichords

The 1889 World Exhibition in Paris marked a significant milestone in the rediscovery of the harpsichord, as instruments of this type were presented there for the first time in many years (historical original instruments such as harpsichords, spinets, clavichords and square pianos were exhibited, including an original instrument by Henri Hemsch from 1755). The Exhibition took place from 6 May to 31 October 1889 on the occasion of the centenary of the French Revolution. Three renowned firms—Pleyel, Erard, and Tomasini—showcased harpsichords whose construction was inspired by a historical instrument built by Pascal Taskin (1723 – 1793).

 

This harpsichord, made in Paris in 1769 and now housed in St Cecilia’s Hall in Edinburgh, was acquired by the Paris Museum around 1880 and restored in 1882 by Louis Tomasini. As part of this restoration, Tomasini produced a copy, which is now displayed at the Berlin Museum of Musical Instruments. Despite certain “improvements” introduced by Tomasini, this reproduction is considered one of the first historical reconstructions.

 

The original Taskin harpsichord was also extensively studied by Pleyel. Based on these studies and the examination of other historical instruments, Pleyel developed a new harpsichord that integrated elements of modern piano construction. These included increased string tension and a reinforced structure, featuring additional transverse ribs in the soundboard — similar to those found in contemporary grand pianos. The instruments produced by Pleyel, Erard, and Tomasini followed Taskin’s original construction and dimensions: they had two manuals, a compass of F’–f”’ (five octaves), and were equipped with two 8′ stops and a 4′ stop. However, Pleyel extended its model by adding six pedals, allowing performers to change registers quickly. Additionally, the case was reinforced, though the earliest harpsichords of this period did not yet feature a metal frame.

A review of the new harpsichord exhibited by Pleyel at the 1889 World Exhibtion appeared in the “Revue des arts décoratifs”, page 16:

• „C’est là un progrès d’une extrême importance. J’allais oublier de dire que la maison Pleyel expose aussi un superbe clavecin moderne, dont la valeur bénéficie naturellement de la supériorité de la facture actuelle sur celle du temps passé. Car on revient au clavecin, qui peut vivre en bon voisinage avec le piano, et qui reste fort utile, ainsi que l’ont prouvé les séances si intéressantes de M. Diéner, la musique écrite jadis par de grands maîtres pour cet instrument ne produisant nullement sur le piano, instrument au son ample et prolongé, l’effet cherché par le compositeur pour un instrument à sonorité sèche et douce à la fois. Ce clavecin est superbe et d’une sonorité exquise. Enfin, j’ajoute que la fabrication de la maison Pleyel a dépassé aujourd’hui le quatre-vingt-dix-septième mille, et qu’elle compte, avant un an, fêter la naissance de son cent millième piano ! Elle sera la première, dans le monde, à pouvoir célébrer un tel résultat.“
• “I almost forgot to mention that the Pleyel company is also exhibiting an excellent modern harpsichord, whose value naturally benefits from the superiority of today’s craftsmanship over that of the past. Let us now return to the harpsichord, which serves as a valuable complement to the piano and, as the highly interesting sessions of Mr. Diéner have demonstrated, remains very useful. The music written by great masters of the past for this instrument does not achieve the intended effect on the piano—a sonorous instrument with broad and sustained tone—since the composers envisioned a sound that is both crisp and delicate. This harpsichord is outstanding and has an exquisite tone.” (Revue des arts décoratifs, 1889, p. 16)

 

Accompanying the Paris World Exhibition, the pianist and composer Louis Diémier (1843 – 1919) played concerts on the newly introduced harpsichord for the first time.

Wanda Landowska’s interest in the harpsichord led her, from 1903/04 onwards, to actively incorporate Pleyel harpsichords into her concert performances, thereby significantly increasing public interest in the instrument. In close collaboration with Pleyel, she contributed to the development of a harpsichord that would meet both her tonal ideals and the demands of historical performance practice, while also accommodating the requirements of modern concert settings.

This collaboration between Landowska, Pleyel’s chief engineer Monsieur Lamy, and the company’s director and acoustician Gustave Lyon (1857 – 1936) culminated in the creation of an innovative harpsichord model. The result of their joint efforts was publicly unveiled at the VI. German Bach Festival of the Neue Bachgesellschaft in Breslau from 15–17 June 1912: the Pleyel harpsichord “Grand Modèle de Concert,” which prominently bore Landowska’s name on the jack rail.

 

The new Pleyel harpsichord combined traditional craftsmanship with innovative mechanical improvements, designed to enhance the instrument’s stability, volume, and versatility. This newly developed model differed significantly from its Baroque predecessors, as well as from the early Pleyel harpsichords introduced at the 1889 Paris Exhibtion, particularly through the introduction of a metal frame from 1923 onwards. Such a structural innovation had previously been absent from harpsichords of this type, and it greatly improved the instrument’s stability, enabling higher string tension, which resulted in a more powerful and resonant tone.

Furthermore, the harpsichord’s mechanism was carefully refined, allowing for a more consistent key response and greater precision in sound control. The tuning pins were improved, leading to the development of double tuning pins, which ensured exceptional tuning stability. The registers were activated via pedals, facilitating ease of use for performers.

One of the most striking features of the new Pleyel harpsichord was the introduction of a 16′ register, which, at Landowska’s request, was incorporated into all instruments from 1912 onwards, adding depth and richness to the sound spectrum.

 

Pleyel produced two variations of this harpsichord:

• “Modèle Réduit” – 6 pedals, compass: AA–f³, without a 16′ register
• “Grand Modèle de Concert” – 7 pedals, compass: FF–f³, with a 16′ register

 

In 1968, Pleyel produced another model called the “Modèle Trianon.” Only three instruments were built. The instruments were crafted in a modern style, no longer featuring a metal frame, and lacked the 16′ register.

 

The instrument’s design and acoustics were largely the work of Gustave Lyon, the chief acoustician and head of Pleyel. One of his key innovations was the damping system, which became a defining characteristic of Pleyel harpsichords. When a performer played an 8′ register on one manual, the corresponding 8′ register on the second manual vibrated sympathetically, provided it was perfectly in tune. This unique acoustic effect contributed significantly to the distinctive and unparalleled sound of Pleyel harpsichords, solidifying their reputation in both historical performance and modern concert practice.

 

The Pleyel harpsichord in the Eric Feller Collection

The harpsichord presented here was made in 1928 by the Pleyel company in Paris and is the “Grand Modèle de Concert“. The case of the instrument is made of the finest rosewood, which is decorated with charming inlays all around. While the majority of the harpsichords made by Pleyel were made of mahogany, only a few examples were made of rosewood. It has five legs with gilded bases and a lyre with seven pedals to control the registers.

 

The instrument has two manuals and is equipped with five different registers that allow for a wide variety of sound designs:

 

• lower manual: 8′, 16′, 4′
• upper manual: 8′, 8′-nasal, lute stop for both registers
• Manual coupler

 

The registers are distributed over the pedals from left to right as follows:

 

Pedal 1	Pedal 2	Pedal 3	Pedal 4	Pedal 5	Pedal 6	Pedal 7
lower manual 16‘ – register	lower manual 4‘ – register	lower manual 8‘ – register	Lute stop for both 8‘ – registers (upper manual)	manual coupler	upper manual 8‘ – register nasal	upper manual 8‘ – register

The registers are switched on when the pedals are pressed down, others switch when they are released.

Due to the disposition, there are up to 55 different registration options. The following combinations of registers are possible:

Step 1: Individual manuals

Lower manual: 8′, 16′, 4′

→ Can be used individually or in combinations:

• 8′
• 16′
• 4′
• 8′ + 16′
• 8′ + 4′
• 16′ + 4′
• 8′ + 16′ + 4′
• → 7 combinations

Upper manual: 8′, 8′-nasal, lute stop

→ Can be used individually or in combinations:

• 8′
• 8′-nasal
• 8′ + 8′-nasal
• 8′ + lute stop
• 8′-nasal + lute stop
• 8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop
• → 6 combinations

Step 2: Taking the manual coupler into account

If the manual coupler is activated, both manuals can sound at the same time. This means that any of the 7 combinations of the lower manual can be combined with any of the 6 combinations of the upper manual.

Total number of registration possibilities

The combinations without coupling are:

• 7 (lower manual only) + 6 (upper manual only) = 13 possibilities

With coupling:

• 7 (lower manual) × 6 (upper manual) = 42 possibilities

Total number of possible registrations:

13 + 42 = 55 different combinations

All registration possibilities are listed below:

1. Registrations without manual coupling

Lower manual only (7 combinations)

• 8′
• 16′
• 4′
• 8′ + 16′
• 8′ + 4′
• 16′ + 4′
• 8′ + 16′ + 4′

Upper manual only (6 combinations)

• 8′
• 8′-nasal
• 8′ + 8′-nasal
• 8′ + lute stop
• 8′-nasal + lute stop
• 8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop

2. Registrations with manual coupler (42 combinations)

Each of the 7 combinations of the lower manual can be combined with each of the 6 combinations of the upper manual:

• (8′) + (8′)
• (8′) + (8′-nasal)
• (8′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (8′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (8′) + (8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (8′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (16′) + (8′)
• (16′) + (8′-nasal)
• (16′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (16′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (16′) + (8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (16′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (4′) + (8′)
• (4′) + (8′-nasal)
• (4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (4′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (4′) + (8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (8′ + 16′) + (8′)
• (8′ + 16′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (8′ + 16′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (8′ + 16′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute line)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′-nasal)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (8′ + 4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (16′ + 4′) + (8′)
• (16′ + 4′) + (8′-nasal)
• (16′ + 4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (16′ + 4′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (16′ + 4′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′-nasal)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′ + lute stop)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′-nasal + lute stop)
• (8′ + 16′ + 4′) + (8′ + 8′-nasal + lute stop)

 

The case of the instrument is open at the bottom and the construction is based on a solid steel frame similar to the modern grand pianos of the time. In the soundboard there is a gilded rosette with the initials “P” and “C“, which further accentuates the aesthetic design of the harpsichord and is reminiscent of the historical harpsichords. The bass strings are wound, which significantly amplifies the sound. The jacks are made of wood and covered with leather.

A notable feature of this harpsichord are the tuning pins: each string is equipped with a double pin. The first pin is used for coarse adjustment and this is made possible by a ratchet mechanism located on a joint on the sound post. Behind this ratchet pin protrudes a small wing, which has a two-pronged fork shape. Between these prongs is positioned a second pin, which is firmly screwed into the sound post. By precisely screwing and unscrewing this second pin, the ratchet assembly is set in a back and forth swinging motion on its joint, which allows for extremely fine adjustment of the string. Although the ratchet mechanism is rarely used directly in practical tuning work, this system enables an exact adjustment of the pitch that would be very difficult to achieve with traditional tuning pins.

These so-called micrometer tuning pins or “Alibert-pins” as they were called by Pleyel, were developed by the inventor Jean-Pierre Alibert and patented in 1875 by Auguste Wolff (1821 – 1887).

 

The entire construction of the instrument is characterized by remarkable precision and reflects the high production standards and the brilliant construction system that Pleyel used in the manufacture of this harpsichord. The nameboard is signed:

“Pleyel

Facteur à Paris

Fondé en 1807“

A further signature is on the jack rail:

“Le Jeu grave dit par les Anciens “de 16 Pieds” fut introduit dans les

Clavecins Pleyel à partir de l’année 1912, sur la demande & les suggestions de

Wanda Landowska.”

The instrument has the serial numbers 73F432 and 185.600, which are noted on the wrest plank. Based on these numbers, it can be seen from Pleyel’s production books that the harpsichord was sold to Amsterdam on October 12, 1928 for a price of 33,536 francs. Taking inflation and the stable exchange rate into account, this amount would correspond to a purchasing power of around 83,400 Euros today (2025). In addition, the Pleyel company charged an additional fee of 1,225 francs for packaging the instrument. According to Pleyel’s original delivery books, the buyer was a music store in Amsterdam.

The shop in Amsterdam lent out the instrument for various concerts and recordings. An interesting recording of the song “I’ve Found A New Baby” was made in 1954 by the “Dutch Swing College Band“, founded in 1945, with this harpsichord. The harpsichordist on this unusual recording was the Dutchman Joop Schrier (1918 – 1995). To hear the recording, click here!

 

The importance of the Pleyel harpsichords today and the “reduced Rastenbauweise“

Pleyel’s “Grand Modèle de Concert” was the decisive pioneer for the revival of harpsichord construction at the beginning of the 20^th century and formed the starting point for numerous developments in harpsichord construction in Europe. The model designed established itself as the decisive prototype for the construction of modern harpsichords and served as a reference model that was replicated many times, but whose qualitative standards were never achieved again. At this point I would like to introduce the term “reduced Rastenbauweise” into my explanations in order to be able to make a more precise distinction between the other instruments and Pleyel. Instrument makers such as Maendler-Schramm, Neupert and Dolmetsch began to design instruments based on Pleyel’s harpsichords or were significantly inspired by them. In the early stages of development, these instruments exhibited a strong resemblance to the harpsichords by Pleyel, with their structural design, particularly the raster construction, being almost identically adopted. In an effort to reduce costs, simplify the construction process, be able to produce a large number of instruments in a short time or to experiment with sound, the so-called harpsichords in a “reduced Rastenbauweise” were created. However, these had very few similarities with the original Pleyel design (and of course hardly anything in common with the later historical copies). This type of instrument lacks a steel frame, the scale lengths are different, strings are not wound, the body construction is lighter, the base is partially closed, etc. The aforementioned changes led to a significant change in the sound character, which is clearly different from Pleyel’s instruments.

These instruments (also because they were produced in large numbers to meet growing demand) shaped the idea of ​​sound until the 1970s. It was not until the 1970s that historical copies of original instruments began to be made, which have now become established as the standard in historical performance practice.

Pleyel’s construction is impressive due to its precise execution, which not only reflects high production standards, but also a sophisticated manufacturing system that was used in the manufacture of these instruments. Almost 100 years after production, as in the example of the Pleyel harpsichord in the collection described here, the exceptional craftsmanship remains intact. This well-thought-out production ensures an acoustic performance that massively distinguishes the Pleyel harpsichord from other harpsichords. The ingenious construction creates a richness of sound and versatility that is absolutely unique and cannot be compared to any other instrument. The Pleyel harpsichords are based on historical principles, but use modern materials, construction methods and experience from modern piano construction to achieve greater tonal assertiveness. Compared to other harpsichords of the “reduced Rastenbauweise“, the sound can certainly be seen as more “historical”, but due to the construction it is louder and more brilliant.

So why did the “reduced Rastenbauweise” prevail for so long in the 20^th century and shape the sound of this first generation in historical performance practice, while Pleyel’s designs were no longer built or produced in large numbers?

To answer this question, several factors must be considered. A central aspect is the economic dimension. Considering the production costs of a Pleyel harpsichord at the time and the high demand for this rediscovered instrument, it became economically necessary to provide cheaper alternatives for the expanding market. This led to a reduction in the construction effort, which made cheaper production possible.

Another relevant factor is the historical framework of the Second World War. During the war years and in the immediate post-war period, the availability of high-quality materials was severely limited, so that instrument makers were forced to resort to lower quality materials or use other solutions.

In addition, harpsichord construction was in a continuous development process, during which both sound optimization and adaptation to historical originals were sought. A notable example of this is the harpsichord made by Kurt Hutzelmann in 1967, which is also in the collection. (Click here for more information on this instrument!) Hutzelmann developed a mechanism that made it possible to raise the dampers using a pedal – analogous to the damper release on a piano. However, this design does not establish a historical reference to the harpsichords of the 17^th and 18^th centuries, but rather reflects the attempt to make sound modifications in the sense of a subjective improvement.

With the onset of the 1970s, a fundamental paradigm shift took place in harpsichord construction. While previously the focus was on the gradual improvement of the sound potential and the economically adapted construction, the aim increasingly shifted to the exact replication of historical instruments. This development was closely linked to the growing interest in authentic performance practice and historical sound research, which did not yet exist to this extent at the beginning of the 20^th century. Cultural and educational impulses encouraged this trend. The promotion of historical performance practice at universities and by cultural institutions increased awareness of the importance of authentic instruments. This gave harpsichord construction an idealistic and educational impulse, which led to increased research and innovation in this area.

The new approaches aimed to faithfully reconstruct the construction principles and sound properties of the instruments of the 17^th and 18^th centuries, whereby the “reduced Rastenbauweise”, which dominated harpsichord construction for over 50 years, faded into the background and is now considered obsolete.

With his harpsichords, Pleyel created masterpieces of instrument making that build a bridge between the past and the modern. They are well thought out, sophisticated, innovative and forward-looking! They were also the trigger and inspiration for composers of the 20^th century to compose pieces for this type of instrument (for example the “Concert champêtre” by Francis Poulenc (1899 – 1963), which he wrote for Wanda Landowska in 1927/28).

Pleyel used historical instruments as an opportunity to improve the construction of the harpsichord. The aim was not to simply copy a historical instrument, but to further develop the harpsichord!

The company wrote in the “Catalogue Pleyel, Wolff & Cie.” from 1892, page 11:

• « Pleyel, Wolff et Cie dans leur facture courante et, de plus, M. Lyon avait très habilement reconstitué le clavecin et le dotant de qualités que n’avaient pas les meilleurs instruments des siècles passés. Aussi, il faillait récompenser à la fois le mérite des inventions attachées au nom de Pleyel, les qualités de ses instruments et le goût artistique qui présidait à leur construction. A l’unanimité des mebres du jury international de la classe 13, un Grand Prix, la plus haute récompense mise à la dispension des jurys, a été décerné à la maison Pleyel, Wolff et Cie. »
• “… and in addition, Mr. Lyon had reconstructed the harpsichord extremely skillfully and given it properties that even the best instruments of past centuries did not possess. It was therefore important to appreciate both the merits of the inventions associated with the name Pleyel and the quality of his instruments and the artistic taste that underlay their construction.”

A new instrument was created with distinctive features compared to all other types of harpsichords and this is how these instruments must be viewed and classified! Today, Pleyel harpsichords are repeatedly compared with other instruments. However, a comparison would be similar to trying to compare two fundamentally different objects whose properties do not correlate in a way that allows a fair or informative comparison.

 

Sources:

• Anthony, James R. Landowska: The Life and Work of the Great Harpsichordist. Amadeus Press, 2003.
• de Vries, Willem „Sonderstab Musik: Organisierte Plünderungen in Westeuropa 1940-45“.
• Di Stefano, G.P. (2012). Pleyel after Pleyel. The instruments of Auguste Wolff and Gustave Lyon at Universal Exhibitions (1855-c.1905). MUSIQUE, IMAGES, INSTRUMENTS, XIII(XIII), 77-99.
• Elste, Martin: Die Dame mit dem Cembalo. Wanda Landowska und die Alte Musik. Katalog zur Sonderausstellung im Berliner Musikinstrumenten-Museum, Berlin 2009
• Glendon, Frank: Remembering Hilda Jonas. In: The Diapason – Harpsichord News. Dezember 2014.
• Gutmann, Peter. “Wanda Landowska: Revolutionary and Traditionalist.” New England Review and Bread Loaf Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 4, 2005, pp. 143-152.
• Heyer, John Hajdu. “Wanda Landowska and Early Music: A Personal View.” Early Music, vol. 14, no. 3, 1986, pp. 301-305.
• Hsu, Samuel. Wanda Landowska: The Woman and the Artist. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.
• Jonas, Hilda: Harpsichord Festival Scheduled. In: The Harpsichord. Vol. III, No 4, 1970.
• Joseph, Charles M. Wanda Landowska: The Search for Authenticity. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.
• Kallberg, Jeffrey. “Landowska and Her Circle: The Shared Aesthetics of Music and Art.” In The Cambridge Companion to Wanda Landowska, edited by Mark Kroll, pp. 100-118. Cambridge University Press, 2021.
• Kroll, Mark. “The Artistry of Wanda Landowska.” Early Music America, vol. 6, no. 1, 2000, pp. 30-35.
• Landowska, Wanda. Landowska on Music. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd, 1964.
• Lawrence, D.H. “Wanda Landowska: The Pianist Who Made the Harpsichord Sing.” The Adelphi, June 1932, 148-156.
• Lubitz, Andrea. “Wanda Landowska and Her Collaborators in Interwar France.” In The Cambridge Companion to Wanda Landowska, edited by Mark Kroll, pp. 82-99. Cambridge University Press, 2021.
• McAllister, Alastair: “Talking Harpsichords”, The Rhykane Press 2014.
• Mould, Charles (Hrsg.): Amendments and additions to clavichord-related information in the Third Edition of Donald Boalch’s Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord 1440–1840. 1995.
• Neupert, Hanns: Das Klavichord. Bärenreiter Verlag, Kassel 1977.
• Schmidt, Martin-Christian: Das 16’-Register im deutschen Cembalobau des 18. Jahrhunderts. Groteske oder beachtenswerte Erscheinung mit aufführungspraktischer Relevanz? In: Eszter Fontana (Hrsg.): Festschrift für Rainer Weber. Halle 1999, ISBN 3-932863-98-4. S. 63–72. (= Scripta Artium, Bd. 1. Schriftenreihe der Kunstsammlungen der Universität Leipzig).
• Oja, Carol J. Making Music Modern: New York in the 1920s. Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Owen, Barbara. “Wanda Landowska: A Pianist of the Harpsichord.” Early Music, vol. 4, no. 4, 1976, pp. 469-478.
• Piekarska-Duraj, Jolanta. Wanda Landowska: A Biography. Krakow: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 2012.
• Restout, Denise. Wanda Landowska: A Life in Music. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1981.
• Rosand, Ellen. “Wanda Landowska’s Aesthetic of Early Music.” Early Music, vol. 14, no. 3, 1986, pp. 306-312.
• Rosenblum, Sandra P. Landowska: Wanda Landowska Remembered. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2000.
• Rubin, Ruth J. “Wanda Landowska and the Harpsichord Revival.” In Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150-1950, edited by Jane Bowers and Judith Tick, pp. 225-238. University of Illinois Press, 1986.
• Rosati, Vincent J. Wanda Landowska and Early Music: The Quest for Authenticity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998.
• Sauer, Theresa. “Wanda Landowska’s Contributions to the Early Music Revival.” The Musical Quarterly, vol. 81, no. 2, 1997, pp. 201-224.
• Wolfgang Zuckermann: The modern harpsichord, twentieth century instruments and their makers. October House, New York 1969.

© Eric Feller – Early Keyboard Collection – March 2025

 

 

---